Democracy in Africa: Botswana, Morocco and Ghana

majority rule in Africa Botswana, Morocco and gold coastContents (Jump to)INTRODUCTIONCategories of countryDirect state in loss/ representative special KwealthCharacteristics of commonwealth publication representative Free and becoming(a) electionscivic liberties/ rudimentary realness estimablesRule of lawSeparation of posts land in AfricaBotswanaUninterrupted Free ElectionsAccountability and TranspargonncyAnti prepargonridness Powers extreme human rightsMoroccoAuthoritarian MonarchyReforming Monarchs reconciliation and JusticeFreedom of Expressiongold coast windupBibliographyINTRODUCTIONDemocracy is a term conversant to approximately peck, further it is misunderstood and mis implementd at a intravenous feedingth dimension when potentates and coup leadershiphip assert popular support by cl selecting the mantle of democracy start outicularly in Africa. Democracy has prevailed finished a long and turbulent history, and republi support g overnings in atomi c number 63 and America, nonwithstanding continuing chall(a)enges, continues to come on and flourish end-to-end the world.Democracy derives from a Greek word demos, or people, it is defined as regimen in which the imperative power is vested in the people. A democracy is a system of government in which leaders atomic number 18 choose in competitive elections, where many parties and candidates take part and where opposition parties can attain power if they gain widespread support (deth Van Deth, 2005). Democracy has different forms, in some cuttings it can be exercised directly by the people, in larger-than-life societies or by the people through their take representatives. According to the memorable phrase of Abraham Lincoln, democracy is government of the people, by the people, and for the people.Categories of democracyDemocracy has two categories, direct and representative.Direct democracyCitizens partake in ma tabby earth decisions without the intermediary of elected representatives. This system is practical with rather a small number of people in a community, commonwealth council, for voice in the UK, rude(a) England T declargon Meeting residents of the town do debates and vote directly on town policies. Some U.S. states, practice direct democracy by placing propositions and referenda to change laws. In Switzerland, vital semi insurance-making decisions on matters, including health, employment, atomic number 18 put to vote by the citizens.Indirect/ representative democracyIndirect democracy is a system of government in which the frequent manages the government through elected representatives. The voted agents represent the people as remote to the direct democracy whereby citizens imbibe public policy decisions directly through polls or initiatives. An example of this type of democracy is in Kenya. The public votes in people to represent them in government institutions. The elected officials make laws, political enactments and admini ster public programs.Characteristics of democracyDemocracies be different in every part of the world peoples egalitarian sublimes atomic number 18 enamourd by their culture and hostelry. It is to a greater extent than a effectuate of precise government institutions (Gupta, 2013). Most democracies rest upon a well unstated set of values, attitudes, and practices which may demand diverse forms and expressions among cultures and societies around the world. However, the fundamental signs and principles of a democracy hang on consistent (Cincotta, 2004).A true form of democracy should includeElected representative Free and fair electionsAll democracies should hold regular elections and waive adults or people of a sealed age to take part in voting. The elections should be free and fair so as to raise political competition for the sizable of the public. A democracy moldiness lease officials elected by the people to make laws and frame policies of the government.Civil libe rties/ Fundamental human rightsA vital characteristic of democracy is that it gives or ensures its citizens project top civil rights or fundamental rights. Democracies allow their citizens freedom of destination and press, freedom of religion and conscience, freedom of assembly and tie-up, right to equal security measures by the law, right to due process of law and fair trial, and stead rights to land goods and m sensationy.Rule of lawRule of law is an some other(a) characteristic of democracy. Democratic governments should ensure that thither is rule of law whereby no someone(a) is above the law and there is due process of law. This ensures emphasizes that the Law is supreme and citizens are all equal in the eyes of law.Separation of powersA democracy should ensure that all institutions of the government film equal power. This ensures righteousness by encouraging checks and offsets between the government institutions. Democracies with separated powers ensure purvey for effective checks and balances between the executive, judiciary and the parliament are make. This makes sure that all take sires of government must be as accessible and responsive to the people as possible.Democracy in AfricaDemocracy started sweeping across Africa in the early 1990s after the end of cold war. A roll of democratization was propagated all over Africa by the West. Claude Ake argues that the reforms in Eastern Europe totd to the west advocating for democracy in Africa. Ake claims that Eastern Europe provided the West with a dramatic vindication of its own values and a sense of the diachronic inevitability of the triumph of democracy (Ake, 1991), a mission widely believed, would consolidate the domination of horse opera ideals all over the world.Authoritarians and single party states were labored by western powers to democratize their states. Un elective states were expected to launch democratic reforms so that they could get international support and donors them selves started to provide democracy assistance.Activists during the time of democratization of Africa wished for more political freedoms and strong institutions hoping that democracy would lead to more government responsibility and more effective development.Africans themselves sire also disputed for democracy, an example of this is the Saba Saba movement whereby Kenyan political activities fighting for multiparty democracy had a ruby confrontation with authorities. Ake gives examples of the popular rejection of phalanx rule in Nigeria and also the struggle for multiparty in Cameroon (Ake, 1991).doubting Thomas C. Mountain argues that Western style democracy is destroying Africa. Thomas insists Africans should lay down been allowed to practice their customsal form of democracy which was more of virtually arriving at a consensus where everyone got something after persuasion by council of elders (Mountain, 2012).Democracy in Africa continues to face many challenges such as p overty, coup dtats, corruption and many other problems. However there are countries that have deluge these problems and challenges. Some of these states have have it offed long periods of political stableness but their level of democracy can be argued according to ones definition of democracy. A case study of three African states would be utilise to analyse democracy in Africa.BotswanaIn November 2008, Festus Gontebanye Mogae, the former electric chair of Botswana received an award from (Sarkin Cook, 2008)Ibrahim reckon for Achievement in African Leadership. The reason why Botswanas president won was because Botswanas democracy was strong, stable and rooted in the rule of law. Botswana was widely regarded as one of the more effective countries in the world in combating corruption. President Mogaes outstanding leadership has ensured Botswanas continued stability and prosperity in the face of an HIV/AIDS pandemic which imperil the upcoming of his country and people. The Prize Committee believed that good face requires an surround conducive to peace, security and development, based on the rule of law and mention for human rights. Botswana has had to address the challenge of advancing severally in a balanced course. This has been helped by the independence and integrity of its institutions which bodes well for further progress towards spreading wealth and opportunity across all sectors of Botswana society. Botswanas democracy has been characterized byUninterrupted Free ElectionsBotswana is one of a few African countries that have enjoyed free and uninterrupted elections in Africa since it gained independence from Britain. Having held free elections since it gained independence, Botswana portrays an ideal democracy in Africa. Civilian rule has been uninterrupted by the military or any autocratic governments.Accountability and TransparencyBotswana has had a written report for accountability and transparency. Accountability and transparency have been fo rmalized through mechanisms such as the opus and legislation requiring open government, accountability, and transparency. Presidents of Botswana have insisted on governments accountability mechanism and limiting corruptionAnticorruption PowersBotswanas government enacted a carte du jour in 1994 that set up an anticorruption body. The anti-corruption body was vested with the powers to conduct investigations and make arrests. (Sarkin Cook, 2008) In Botswana, there are laws that establish civilian supervision over the practice of law and a process, through a supervisory body, for civilians to lodge complaints against police abuses and other human rights violations.Fundamental human rightsThe constitution of Botswana guarantees the freedoms of speech and the press, association, religion and right to equal protection by the law. The right of the citizens is protected by the constitution which is the supreme law of Botswana.thither are many reasons for Botswanas democratic success. So me reasons are due to Botswanas unique history and context, a few are coincidental, but several are as a result of efforts put in by the countrys leaders (Sarkin Cook, 2008). (Hazan, 2006)Scholars have debated these achievements, resulting in many assessments applauding Botswana and a handful that note Botswanas success story is not without significant flaws. Some of these flaws include conquest of the minority San tribe, expulsion of foreign reports and scholars, and limitations on access to information.MoroccoAuthoritarian MonarchyThe region of Morocco is an example of an authoritarian state. After its independence, Mohammed V assumed the title of king after imposing a entire monarchy and establishing a one-party state. Morocco has been characterized by oppression of opposition, forced disappearance, extrajudicial killings, and imprisonment of political opponents. (Hazan, 2006)Reforming MonarchsRemarkably for an authoritarian leader, King Hassan IIs last, initiated a reform an d reconciliation process, in which he freed political prisoners, enacted constitutional amendments in 1996, which complete a bicameral parliament with all-inclusive powers, and launched an independent commission of inquiry to start investigative human rights abuses.Hassan invited exiled political opposition to return and after the 1997 legislative elections, which despite irregularities brought many antecedently banned parties and opposition members to the Chamber of Representatives. Unusually for an authoritarian leader, Hassan 2 initiated a reform and reconciliation process.When Mohammed VI, the son of Hassan 2 assumed the throne in 1999, he continued with his fathers political reforms. The King gave out two amnesties, resulting in the release of thousands of political prisoners. By the election in 2002, the elections were deemed free and fair by international observers. In 2004, a stark naked law was passed and it fit(p) restrictions on polygamy, divorce and improved womens r ight.Reconciliation and JusticeMohammed VIs established the Equity and Reconciliation Commission (IER) in 2004 with a mandate to rise human rights abuses that occurred from 1956 to 1999. Driss Benzekri, a former political prisoner was appointed as its head. The nature of the commission assessment of compensation brought about changes in governments support for international human rights balances previously unsupported. (Hazan, 2006)Although Hassan II and Mohammed VI introduced reforms, they were outwardly impressive. They made sure that no real changes to the constitutional monarchy were made to date. .Freedom of ExpressionMorocco is extensively condemned for its lack of freedom of expression. The government exercises control over the media and punishes a few independent newspapers that exist. Most broadcast media in Morocco are entirely or partially owned by the state. Self-censorship is common due to punishment for reportage that is deemed inappropriate by the government. Newspa pers such as Le diary have been shut down or penalized, and editors arrested. Le Journal came under government condemnation for its political coverage, and also coverage of corruption of government officials.The Moroccan government has failed to respect human rights since independence, and its constitutional monarchy does not tolerate any serious checks and balances on the kings powers or actions. No democracy movement has been able to press for the resignation of the king or to fight for reforms. (Hazan, 2006)The recent resolutions have failed to create a genuine accountability or justice for the victims or their families. Due process and rights expression and association remain curtailed.GhanaGhana is rated highly on most of canonic measures of democracies. This includes protection of fundamental civil liberties and human rights. Ghana has been successful in holding free and fair elections over the past two decades, and bring down poverty. Ghanaian democracy has not been as muc h successful in participation of most political actors in the countrys governance processes and institutions beyond elections. (Anebo, 2001)Actual participation drafting and implementation of public policy has been restricted to a number of political elite who have succeeded in capturing the presidency although through fairly competitive elections.The president has more powers than the other branches of government. He enjoys vast political and economic resources that he can use to get political support.Elections are the and real check and balance on the executive. Although major political parties, the New Patriotic Party (NPP), and the field of study Democratic Congress (NDC) have accepted the legitimacy of the guidelines that govern political sympathies in Ghana, these guidelines have serious flaws. (Bratton, Michael, Lewis, Boadi., 2001)The elite accord among partisan parties is an agreement to uphold the status quo, regardless of its negative impact on good governance and dem ocratic practice.Ghanaians expect economic and companionable benefits (Anebo, 2001) of democracy than the government appears to produce through existing institutional arrangements.The 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees the homo Rights of all somebodys found at bottom the territorial boundaries of the Republic of Ghana. Chapter 5 of 1992 Constitution, Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms ensures rights such as right to life, economic rights and womens right are adhered to. The entire chapter 5 can only be amended by the people of Ghana through voting at a referendum. Ghanaians enjoy freedom of press and information thus making it one of the countries in Africa that does not oppress the media. (Arthur, 2010)ConclusionAfrica has a long commission to go to attain full democratic status with them being welfare states. There a lot of limitations those hinder the full initiation of democracy in many African countries. Ethnicity, poor leadership, poverty, corruption have been signi ficant in preventing democratization in Africa. I strongly agree with Akes arguments that the trail of democracy would not feed or shelter the needy. (Ake, 1991) If Africa is to achieve democracy, people must first be enlightened and kick out the anti-democracy forces. Some African countries are still under authoritative and corrupt rulers. These leaders profess to be practicing democracy they hold elections full of deceit and thus touch on to power.Democracy must be considered African context most pressing needs and people must first be amend to accept and appreciate democracy as Ake argues. (Ake, 1991)BibliographyAke, C. (1991). Rethinking African Democracy. Journal of Democracy, 33-44.Anebo, F. (2001). The Ghana 2000 Elections. Journal of African Political Science, 69-88.Arthur, P. (2010). Democratic Consolidation in GhanaThe Role and Contribution of the Media, Civil Society and State Institutions . Comparative and rural area Studies, 203-226.Arthur, Peter. 2010. Democratic C onsolidation in Ghana The Role and Contribution of the Media, Civil Society and State Institutions.- Comparative and Commonwealth Studies 48(2) . (n.d.). 203-226.Bratton, Michael, Lewis, P., Boadi., E. G. (2001). Constituencies for Reform in Ghana. Journal of Modern African Studies, 231-259.Cincotta, H. (2004). Democracy in brief. Washington DC variation of US studies.Deth, k. n., Van Deth, J. W. (2005). The Democratic State. In Foundations of Comparative politics (p. 22). New York Cambridge University.Gupta, T. (2013, 12 4). preserve articles. Retrieved from preservearticles.com http//www.preservearticles.com/2012051632235/what-are-the-five-features-of-democracy.htmlHazan, P. (2006). Morocco Betting on a Truth and Reconciliation Commission. United States Institute of Peace Special Report 165 .Mountain, T. C. (2012). Destroying Africa With Western Democracy. Foreign policy journal, 72-96.Sarkin, j., Cook, A. (2008). Is Botswana the Miracle of Africa? Democracy, the Rule. TRANSNA TIONAL LAW CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS, 453-457. psyche Differences Trait Theory and idiosyncratic(prenominal) ConstructsIndividual Differences Trait Theory and own(prenominal) ConstructsMiss Emma Elizabeth Dorothy MeredithHow well does trait theory help us rede psyche differences? Discuss this question with reference to ain ca-ca theory.This study will explore trait theory and how it helps us to understand respective(prenominal) differences in resemblance with ain give theory. The basis of from each one nuzzle is trait theory delineates a reasonably solid characteristic which differentiates one individual from another, whereas personal spend a penny theory argues that individuals create their own way of making sense of the world through creating their own private structures. The believe will begin by outlining the main notions of the theories, to gain an keenness of how individual differences are perceived by each approach. This essay will aim to identify strengths a nd limitations in each approach and will conclude by evaluating the extent to which each theory can account for and explain individual differences.Trait theory is based in the amicable cognitive survey and developed from the experimental tradition to individual differences and which are seen as placed ways in which individuals can vary from each other ( prey, 2012). The aim of trait theory is to find commonplace dimensions from a broad cast of individuals, which would wherefore help theorists to predict the demeanour of an individual in certain situations. Individual differences are defined by using questionnaires as a measurement of character. This fits in well with the social cognitive approach which sees individuals as information processing beings in the social world (Hollway, 2012). Eysenck and Rachman (1965, cited base 2012) argued patrimonial and biological factors were responsible for constitution traits. By using psychometric tests, intentional to assess traits o f individuals, they sought to explore record causality. Eysencks theory suggests personality can be characterised by three precise traits (extraversion/introversion, neuroticism and psychoticism) suggesting each of these traits are characterised by particular behavioural attributes. From the data gained from Eysencks personality inventories (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1963, cited Butt 2012) they argued these traits are behavioural expressions of biologically based differences, similar to the four temperaments of Hippocrates and Galen from Ancient Greece. Eysenck and Rachmans (1965, cited Butt 2012) research claims there are two main dimensions of personality which are unrelated. These are extraversion and neuroticism and are behavioural definitions of differences in temperament. They argue these dimensions are grounded in autonomic and cortisol arousal and suggest the kin between behavioural patterns and inherent wit structure is similar to phenotype and genotype in biology (Butt 201 2). It was argued by Eysenck there could be a clinical application if main dimensions were found and connect to distinctive types of neurotic behaviour and may explain the some of the mental disorders some individuals acquire, which would allow for future treatment and interventions. Trait theories of personality describe personality in terms of characteristics such as, reliable unreliable, or sort traits, which have been recognised through factor analysis to form clusters into personality dimensions, for example, extraversion includes traits such as risk taking and sociability(Stevens 2007).Personal compose theory was developed by George Kelly (1955, cited Butt 2012 Stevens 2007), he focuse his work on individual differences and viewed personality as an individual understand (Stevens, 2007). It promotes takes which Kelly used to describe the bipolar dimensions (e.g. Friendly/cold, interesting/boring) which underlie the ways in which a person makes sense of their world (Stev ens 2007). Based in the phenomenological perspective, which focuses is on how things (especially other people) appear different to each individual, personal creation theory aims to understand how an individual uses their takingsive experiences to create a set of personal take a leaks which in turn help them to make sense of the world and to take account of the distinctiveness of each individuals personality (Butt 2012). Personal construct theory considers individual differences as taking account of and recognising each individuals view of the world and how this helps to create their personality and who they sire as an individual (Butt 2012 Stevens 2007). Kelly (1955, cited Butt 2012 Stevens 2007) argued it is peoples own experiences which build their set of constructs and these are used to evaluate situations. Two people assessing the same scenario will so see things differently, and this is where individual differences occur. Constructs are seen as being fluid and looking at o neself through anothers eyes, individuals can make conscious choices in order to change their view of the world and their personality (Butt 2012). However, as individuals put a lot of effort into building these constructions, Kelly (1955, cited Butt 2012) argued the individual may not wish to change them.Personal construct theory is grounded in subjective methodology. Kelly (1955, cited Butt 2012) developed the Repertory Grid to investigate the sets of personal constructs used by individuals. This works through the process of individuals designating constructs to all persons considered to be a part of their life. This enables the bipolar dimensions to be determined. When analysed it reveals the differences found in each individuals experiences and how they will assess the same person or situation in completely differing ways. If a person is rigid in their constructs they may believe an individual who is aloof would also be a cold person. Having this rigidity in a personality could l ead to relationship problems as opposed to someone with a more fluid personality. Constructs are created subconsciously, so by using the grid, individuals are able to gain insight and relate their own particular meaning to their surrounding environment which would not usually be available (Butt, 2012).A strength of personal construct theory is it adds a holistic pinch of individual differences. It also transcends both the individual-society dualism and agency-structure dualism, the individual is considered from their own experiences and also by being part of the social world (Hollway, 2012). Personal construct theory accepts people change and society can help in promoting this change. Personal construct theory does have limitations. The findings cannot be compared across a wider population. It is also a relatively new theory and as a result has not been researched or tried and true to the same extent as trait theory.Trait theory is an sr. theory and has been thoroughly researched and tested extensively. The methodology is fair game and the ontology views humans as information processing entities and by using personality measurements such as Eysencks personality inventory, larger groups of individuals can be compared. The aim is the objective measurement of individual differences. A biological reductionist attitude to individual differences was adopted by Eysenck suggesting traits are biologically determined, making them consistent and braggy predictive value. This reductionist approach means problems with dualism are avoided as the behaviour is reduced to physiological levels. This enables behaviour to be better understood. The objectivity and eubstance allows trait theory a broader range for application and its findings can be used to pinpoint trends within organisations. Being grounded in the experimental tradition the knowledge production is limited to the data with no reference to the influence of social environments and individual experiences (Hollw ay 2012).Trait theory does have other limitations, it only describes personality and identifies trends it does not explain it neither does it explain behaviour (Skinner 1974, cited Butt 2012). It is designed to measure reactions and consistency in the reactions of individuals in certain situations. Mischel (1968, cited Butt 2012) argued that trait theory methods reduced the complexity of human behaviour to become more general. He also argued that there is very little testify supporting the consistency in behaviour that is claimed by trait theorists take for granted that behaviour is fixed over time, compared to the considerable amount of substantial differentiate to support behaviours changing in time and in different situations.Compared with personal construct theory, trait theory is seen to be an apt way of considering personality resembling lay theories used by individuals when gauging others. Individuals are able to predict future behaviour assuming that these traits are cons istent (Butt 2012). Personality traits are seen as biological and rigid within trait theory and unlikely to change. As a result has it has a less practical use, compared with personal construct theory, in assisting changes in personality. Unlike personal constructs, how the individuals social life influences the individuals personality is not taken in to account within trait theory. As personal construct theory is subjective, in comparison to the objectivity of trait theory, it is set(p) in time and place whereas the situated knowledge displayed in the trait theory data from the questionnaires are specific to the stream situation and are not necessarily generalised therefore could be ecologically invalid when taken out of context. Individual personalities are considered to be rich with differences and largely taken in to account within personal constructs, which is not seen in trait theory (Butt 2012).As personal construct theory uses a qualitative interview method, any power that t he therapist has would be in drafting the questions needed to gain detail of the personal experiences of the client. The client can then interpret these and place onto the repertoire grid. The power relations found in personal construct theory are by no means to the same degree as those found within trait theory. The repertory grid method stop the researcher having much influence over the research findings and is a large strength of personal construct theory (Salmon 2003 cited Butt 2012). Trait theorists have more power over the individual, coming from the experimental tradition, it is argued that rather than whole showing an individuals personality traits accurately, the outcomes are heavily influenced by the personality and experience of the researcher as they have influence over the design of the questions and can manipulate this design. Therefore, trait theory findings have the potence to be inaccurate as individuals are judged against what is treated as prevalent by people who they believe are the authority on the subject (Mischel 1968, cited Butt 2012).Psychometric measures are used in education in such a way the result is pupils are only taught how to pass tests by their teachers. It was argued by Salmon (2003, cited Butt 2012) by teaching and scrutiny students in this way, the ability level becomes rigid and the learning becomes generalised. Students are then grouped according to how they have performed in the test and their individual personalities are ignored. Personal construct theory in contrast to trait theory, do not see students abilities as fixed but are middling fluid. Salmon (2003, cited Butt 2012) applied essential parts of personal construct theory to education and argued the way that trait theorists suggests children learn is false and children do not leave their own personal worlds at the door when they reckon the classroom. Instead meanings are derived from a personal system of understandings. In the way each students individualit y brings with it their own world and their own personality within world. This means they will have different views on learning styles to others, a type one pupil loves another may hate and Salmon argued to promote personal development and evoketh, schools need to take account of the current personal constructs held by each student. The Salmon byplay was later developed as a qualitative tool, where personal meanings are plotted on a line. These represent the students current abilities and their desired goals. This allows students to see how they are progressing and what they need to do to change and grow using their own meanings and sense of progression, and giving them an active part in their learning (Salmon 2003, cited Butt 2012).Trait theorists see traits as fixed, determined by biological factors and unchanging through the environment which would suggest individuals have no part in changing their personality traits and social structures to not have any bearing on personality t raits at all. However, the methodology used in trait theory means that it has a wide mount to be used across larger populations. In contrast, personal construct theory accepts people change and society facilitates that change, allowing for a better understanding as to why change happens in different situations, when this happens and how this happens. Variations of personal construct theory allows insight to change in the future, for example the Salmon bloodline helps to promote learning by allowing students to set their own objectives to their learning and be aware of what they need to change in their personality to achieve it. This doesnt make either of the theories right when it comes to explaining individuals difference, as demonstrated they both contribute to our understanding of individual differences in very contrasting ways, and both have their fair share of strengths and weaknesses.Word Count 2053ReferencesButt. T, (2012) Individual Differences in D. Langdridge, K. Mahnedr an, S. Taylor (2nd ed) slender Readings in social Psychology, Maidenhead, Open University fight back/Milton Keynes, The Open University.Hollway, W. (2012), Social psychology past and present in W. Hollway, H. Lucey, and A. Phoenix, (eds) Social Psychology Matters, Maidenhead, Open University undertake/Milton Keynes, The Open University.Hollway, W. (2012), Methods and knowledge in social psychology in W. Hollway, H. Lucey, and A. Phoenix, (eds) Social Psychology Matters, Maidenhead, Open University Press/Milton Keynes, The Open University.Stevens, R. (2007), Person Psychology psychoanalytic and humanistic perspectives. In D. Miell, A. Phoenix, K. Thomas (Eds), Mapping Psychology (2nd ed). Maidenhead, Open University Press/Milton Keynes, The Open University.